Volume 20, Issue 1 (4-2025)                   bjcp 2025, 20(1): 1-15 | Back to browse issues page

XML Persian Abstract Print

Comparing the Effect of Group Counseling between Reality Therapy and Schema Therapy on Self-Differentiation in Women with Dependent Personality Traits
Afsaneh Naderi1 , Hamid Yaghubi *2 , Mohamadreza Saffarian Toosi3 , Anis Iranmanesh4
1- Ph.D. Student of Family Counseling, Islamic Azad University, Mashhad, Iran
2- Associate Professor, Department of Counseling and Educational Sciences, Islamic Azad University, Mashhad, Iran and Department of Clinical Psychology, Shahed University, Tehran, Iran , hamidyaghubi@gmail.com
3- Assistant Professor, Department of Counseling and Educational Sciences, Islamic Azad University, Mashhad, Iran
4- Assistant Professor, Department of Statistics, Islamic Azad University, Mashhad, Iran
Abstract:   (215 Views)

Dependent women often experience low self-worth due to limited responsibility, an external locus of control, and childhood trauma. This study compared the effectiveness of reality therapy and schema therapy in improving their sense of self-worth. Using a pre-test–post-test experimental design with a control group, 24 women from Mashhad counseling centers were randomly assigned to reality-therapy, schema-therapy, or control groups. The two treatment groups received eight 90-minute sessions, while the control group received no intervention. Data were collected through self-worth and dependence questionnaires and analyzed using multivariate and univariate covariance analyses. Results showed that both therapy approaches significantly increased overall self-worth (p< 0.001). However, reality therapy was more effective than schema therapy in enhancing interpersonal relationships, self-acceptance, and competence. No significant difference was found between the two treatments in improving meaning in life. The study suggests that both reality therapy and schema therapy can be useful methods for strengthening self-worth in dependent women.

Article number: 1
Keywords: Reality Therapy, Schema Therapy, Self Worth, Women, Dependent Personality Trait
Full-Text [PDF 585 kb]   (1 Downloads)    
Type of Study: Research | Subject: Special
Received: 2024/04/7 | Revised: 2026/02/16 | Accepted: 2026/02/17 | ePublished ahead of print: 2026/02/18 | Published: 2026/02/19
References
1. Abbasi A., Farokhzadian, J., Torkaman, M., & Miri, S. (2025). Schema therapy in partially sighted individuals with a focus on social isolation and self-esteem: An interventional study. BMC Psychiatry, 25(1),289. [DOI:10.1186/s12888-025-06732-4] [PMID] []
2. Abdi, Z., Rejali, M., Hosseini Kupaei, M., Shojaei, F., & Masoudi, B. (2025). A Comparative Study of hope therapy and schema therapy interventions on assertiveness and self-esteem in divorced female heads of households [In Persian]. Iranian Journal of Educational Sociology, 8(2), http://iase-idje.ir/article-1-1528-en.html
3. Arntz, A., & Jacob, G. (2013). Schema therapy in practice: An introductory guide to the schema mode approach. Oxford University Press.
4. Babaeian, M., Shahmoradi, S., & Naghsh, Z. (2024). The relationship between perceived parenting styles and fear of being single: The mediating role of dependency and undeveloped-self schemas. Journal of Applied Psychological Research, 15(1), 169-188. [DOI:10.22059/japr.2024.362065.644674]
5. Baghaipour, L., Sjjadian, I., & Golparvar, M. (2022). The effectiveness of self-worth treatment on rumination and self-criticism of depressed individuals [In Persian]. Contemporary Psychology, 17(1), 29-42
6. http: // dorl. net/dor/20.1001.1.20081243.1401.17.1.3.8
7. Bahadori Khosroshahi, J., & Habibykalibar, R. (2017). Effectiveness of group reality therapy on psychological capital, self-worth and social well-being of elderly people. Aging Psychology, 2(3), 153-165.
8. Behary, W. T., & Dieckmann, E. (2011). Schema therapy for narcissism: The art of empathic confrontation, limit-setting, and leverage. In W. K. Campbell & J. M. Miller (Eds.), The Handbook of narcissism and narcissistic personality disorder: Theoretical approaches, empirical findings, and treatments, (pp. 445-456). [DOI:10.1002/9781118093108.ch40]
9. Corey, G. (2017). Theory and practice of counseling and psychotherapy (10th ed.). Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning.
10. Crisan, S., Canache, M., Buksa, D., & Nechita, D. (2022). A compassion between self-compassion and unconditional self-acceptance: Interventions on self-blame, empathy, shame, guilt-proneness, and performance. Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior Therapy, 1-17. [DOI:10.1080/02699931.2015.1078292] [PMID]
11. Crocker, j., Luhtanen, R. K., Cooper, M. L., & Bouvrette, A. (2003). Contingencies of self-worth in college students: Theory and measurement. Journal of Presonality and Social Psychology, 85(5), 894-908. [DOI:10.1037/0022-3514.85.5.894] [PMID]
12. Curran, T., Meter, D., Janovec, A., Brown, E. & Caban, S. (2021). Maternal adult attachment styles and mother-child transmissions of social skills and self-esteem. Journal of family Studies, 27(4). 491-505. [DOI:10.1080/13229400.2019.1637365]
13. Daemi, F., & Janbozorgi, M. (2011). The effect of parenting style and early maladaptive schemas on children's self-esteem [In Persian]. Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 5(2), 165-172.
14. Damirchi, E., Moradi, M., & Noroozi Homayoon, M. (2024). Investigating the effectiveness of based-on-mentality schema therapy on feelings of loneliness, depression and self-concept of unmarried girls. Journal of Preventive Counseling (JPC), 5(4), 39-57. [DOI:10.22098/jpc.2024.15112.1236]
15. Donald, J. N., Ciarrochi, J., Parker, P. D., Sahdra, B. K., Marshall, S. L., & Guo, J. (2018). A worthy self is a caring self: Examining the developmental relations between self-esteem and self-compassion in adolescents. Journal of Personality, 86(4), 619-630. [DOI:10.1111/jopy.12340] [PMID]
16. Dousti, P., & Hosseininia, N. (2020). Constructing and standardizing the feeling of self-worth questionnaire [In Persian]. The Journal of New Advances in Behavioral Sciences, 5(48), 19-27.
17. Dupasquier, J. R., Kelly, A. C., Moscovitch, D. A., & Vidovic, V. (2020). Cultivating self-compassion promotes disclosure of experiences that threaten self-esteem. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 44(1), 108-119. [DOI:10.1007/s10608-019-10050-x]
18. Ebadi, Z., Ramezani, N., Zekri, F., Bozari, B., & Nemati Chalavi, L. (2024). Comparison of the effectiveness of reality therapy and cognitive-behavioral therapy on the components of basic psychological needs. Razavi International journal of Medicine, 12(3), 32-39. [DOI:10.30483/rijm.2024.254497.1303]
19. Fallah, F., Mansouri, Z., & zamani kokhaloo, L. (2024). The relationship between maladaptive schemas and feelings of loneliness with the isolation of girls with dysmorphic disorder [In Persian]. Clinical Psychology Achievements, 10(4), 1-4. [DOI:10.22055/jacp.2024.47561.1399]
20. Farrell, J. M., & Shaw, I. A. (2012). Group schema therapy for borderline personality disorder: A step-by-step treatment manual with patient workbook. Chichester, UK: Wiley-Blackwell. [DOI:10.1002/9781119943167]
21. Farrell, J. M., Shaw, I. A. (2018). Experiencing schema therapy from the inside out (pp. 33-35). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
22. Glasser, W. (2000). Counseling with Choice Theory: The new reality therapy. New York, NY: HarperCollins.
23. Heidari, A. (2020). Comparison of the effectiveness of matrix therapy and modern group reality therapy based on choice theory on resilience and social adjustment in methamphetamine dependent men who are treated with buprenorphine [In Persian]. Research on Addiction, 13(54), 45-54.
24. Heydarpour, S., Parvane, E., Saqqezi, A., Ziapour, A., Dehghan, F., & Parvaneh, A. (2018). Effectiveness of group counseling based on the reality therapy on resilience and psychological well-being of mothers with an intellectually disabled child. International Journal of Pediatrics, 6(6), 7851-7860. [DOI:10.22038/ijp.2018.29464.2579]
25. Joobanian, F. F., khanzadeh, A. H., Khosrojavid, M., & Shakerinia, I. (2025). The effectiveness of schema-based therapy on self-esteem and distress tolerance in students with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and comorbid social anxiety [In Persian]. Journal of Empowering Exceptional Children, 16(2), 62-74. [DOI:10.22034/ceciranj.2025.503026.1935]
26. Kaisa, E., Sirpa, H., & Irma, N. (2016). Is loneliness associated with malnutrition in older people? International Journal of Gerontology, 10(1), 43-45. [DOI:10.1016/j.ijge.2015.09. 001]
27. Kamali, Z., & Akbarzad, M. (2024). Comparison of the effectiveness of schema therapy in online versus in-person counseling on improving depression, interpersonal relationships, and maladaptive schemas in the domain of disconnection and rejection among women. Journal of Research in Behavioral Sciences, 22(2), 213-223. [DOI:10.24193/jebp.2024.2.14]
28. Khamrniyai, G., Zarei, S., Farahabadi, M., Amirsasan, Y., Mirmasoomi, M., & Arkani, E. (2025). The effectiveness of schema therapy on self-esteem and cognitive flexibility in women with bulimia nervosa [In Persian]. Iranian Journal of Rehabilitation Research in Nursing, 11(2), 88-98. [DOI:10.22034/IJRN.11.2.88]
29. Kotera, Y., Green, P., & Sheffield, D. (2021). Mental health of therapeutic students: Relationships with attitudes, self-criticism, self-compassion, and caregiver identity. British Journal of Guidance & Counselling, 49(5), 701-712. [DOI:10.1080/03069885.2019.1704683]
30. Marquet, L. D. (2020). Leadership is language: The hidden power of what you say and what you don't. Portfolio/Penquin.
31. Moghadam, F., Ebrahimi Moghadam, H., & Jahangir, P. (2021). The relationship between perfectionism, early maladaptive schemas, attachment styles, and body image concern by the mediating role of self-esteem in cosmetic surgery applicants. Journal of Client-Centered Nursing Care, 7(1), 27-42. [DOI:10.32598/JCCNC.7.1.351.1]
32. Montalban, M. A., & Arrogante, O. (2020). Rehabilitation through virtual reality therapy after a stroke: A literature review. Revista Científica de la Sociedad de Enfermería Neurológica (English ed.). [DOI:10.1016/j.sedeng.2020.01.001]
33. Moradi, sh., & Moradi, sh. (2023). Efficacy of schema therapy training on self-efficacy, self-esteem and assertiveness in women heads of households covered by welfare in Karaj [In Persian]. Psychology of Woman Journal. 4(2), 9-16. [DOI:10.61838/kman.pwj.4.2.2]
34. Moshtaghi, S. (2025). The effectiveness of group emotional schema therapy in reducing feelings of loneliness and rumination in mothers with mentally retarded children [In Persian]. Journal of Family Relations Study, 5(1), 27-33. [DOI:10.22098/jfrs.2024.14289.1162]
35. Nadeau, M. M., Caporale-Berkowitz, N. A., & Rochlen, A. B. (2021). Improving women's self-compassion through an online program: A randomized controlled trial. Journal of Counselling & Development, 99(1), 47-59. [DOI:10.1002/jcad.12353]
36. Olave, L., Iruarrizaga, I., Macía, P., Momeñe, J., Estévez, A., Muñiz, J. A., & Peñacoba, C. (2025). Exploring exercise addiction, self-esteem, and early maladaptive schemas: A cross-sectional study among female university students. Healthcare, 3(4), 422. [DOI:10.3390/healthcare13040422] [PMID] []
37. Oltean, L. E., Canache, M. G., Patrichi, A., Rîmbu, R. I., Sîntoma, D., Andrei, C. Miu, A. C., & Szentágotai-Tătar, A. (2024). Loneliness and cognitive vulnerability factors: A systematic review focused on maladaptive cognitions. Journal of Evidence-Based Psychotherapies, 24(2), 7-38. [DOI:10.24193/jebp.2024.2.14]
38. Pandey, R., Tiwari, G. K., Parihar, P., & Rai, P. K. (2021). Positive, not negative, self-compassion mediates the relationship between self-esteem and well-being. Psychology and Psychotherapy: Theory Research and Practice, 94(1), 1-15. [DOI:10.1111/papt.12259] [PMID]
39. Prieler, M., Choi, J., & Eun Lee, H. (2021). The relationships among self-worth contingency on others' approval, appearance comparisons on Facebook, and adolescent girls' body esteem: A cross-cultural study. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18, 901. [DOI:10.3390/ijerph18030901] [PMID] []
40. Rahnamei Zekavat, A., & Moshkani, M. (2024). Comparing the effectiveness of schema therapy with short-term psychodynamic therapy on self-esteem and socio-cultural attitudes towards the appearance of women applying for cosmetic surgery [In Persian]. Family and health Quarterly, 4(2), 132-146. https://sanad.iau.ir/Journal/fhj/Article/1197710
41. Rajmy, Z., Fauziah, A. D., Pratiwi, K. D., & Sovitriana, R. (2025). Application of reality therapy using the WDEP technique to improve self-efficacy among volunteer students at Yatama Az-Zrka
42. Islamic boarding sclool, Sawangan Depork [In Persian]. European Journal of Psychological Research, 12(1), 26-34. ISSN 2057-4794
43. Rogers, R. N., Keller, C., Larkey, L., & Ainsworth, B. (2012). A randomized controlled trial to determine the efficacy of sign Chi Do exercise on adaptation to aging. Research in Gerontological Nursing, 5(2), 101-113. [DOI:10.3928/19404921-20110706-01] [PMID]
44. Rosebrock, L., Freeman, J., Rovira, A., Miguel, A. L., Ward, R., Bousfield, M., Riffiod, L., Kamvar, R., Kabir, T., Waite, F., & Freeman, D. Developing an automated virtual reality therapy for improving positive self-beliefs and psychological well-being (Phoenix VR self-confidence therapy): Tutorial. JMIR Serious Games. [DOI:10.2196/51512] [PMID] []
45. Sabetghadam1, F., & Khoshakhlaghm., H. (2022). Comparing the effectiveness of compassion therapy training and reality therapy on psychosomatic symptoms, perceived stress and quality of life among health workers of certain teaching-treatment hospitals during the outbreak of covid-19 in Isfahan [In Persian]. Contemporary Psychology, 17 (1). 129-145. [DOI:10.1001.1.20081243.1401.17.1.11.6]
46. Sadeghi, P., Nik amal, M., & Pour Salehi Navideh, M. (2023). The predicting of sexual satisfaction based on early maladaptive schemas and irrational beliefs in women with marital conflict [In Persian]. Contemporary Psychology, 18(2), 79-88. [DOI:10.29252/bjcp.18.2.79]
47. Shabaan, M., Khosravi, N., & Peyvastgar, F. (2021). Cultural adaptation of a group schema therapy protocol for Iranian women: A methodological study [In Persian]. Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 19(2), 45-62.
48. Shojaeinejad, M., & Ganji, K. (2025). The effectiveness of reality therapy on depression and self-efficacy in mothers of children with down syndrome (Tehran). International Journal of Social Sciences & Humanities, 10(1), 9-21. [DOI:10.58885/ijssh.v10i1.9.ms]
49. Stephenson, E., Watson, P. J., Chen, Z. J., & Morris, R. J. (2018). Self-compassion, self-esteem, and irrational beliefs. Current Psychology, 37(4), 809-815. [DOI:10.1007/s12144-017-9563-2]
50. Subik, N.J., Falat, J. & Magagnos, J. (2020). When self-worth depends on social media feedback: Associations with psychological well-being. Sex Roles, 82(7), 411-421. [DOI:10.1007/s11199-019-01062-8]
51. Wood, E. H., Jepson, A. & Stadler, R. (2021). Doing and feeling together in older age: Self-worth and belonging through social creative activities. Ageing & Society, 1-12. [DOI:10.1017/S0144686X21001628]
52. Wubbolding, R. E. (2017). Reality therapy and self-evaluation: The key to client change. John Wiley & Sons [DOI:10.1002/9781119376248]
53. Wubbolding, R. E., Brickell, J., Imhof, L., InzaKim, R., Lojk, l., & Al-Rashidi, B. (2004). Reality therapy: A global perspective. International Journal for the Advancement of Counselling, 26 (3), 219-228. [DOI:10.1023/B:ADCO.0000035526.02422.0d]
54. Wubbolding R. E. & CTRTC, Ed. D. (2021). Locus of control and self-evaluation. The International Journal of Choice Theory and Reality Therapy, XLI(1), 59-65
55. Young, J., Klosko, J., & Weishaar, M. (2003). Schema therapy: A practitioner's guide. The Guildford Press
56. Ypsilanti, A., Lazuras, L., Powell, P., & Overton, P. (2019). Self-disgust as a potential mechanism explaining the association between loneliness and depression. Journal of Affective Disorders, 243, 108-115. [DOI:10.1016/j.jad.2018.09.056] [PMID]
57. Yulianti, D., Aulia, F., Mahyatun, B., Marfuatun, M., & Alengka N. (2024). Reality counseling: Overcome anxiety and build self-confidence in thesis completion. Journal Bimbingan Dan Konseling, 11(2), 219-226. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0 [DOI:10.24042/kons.v11i2.24269]
Send email to the article author

Rights and permissions
Creative Commons License This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.